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The contributions of Arab scientists and ancient Egypt on the Development of Physics and Technology
Md. Wasim Aktar
Deptt. of Agril. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
The scientists studied thoroughly Muslims fundamental questions of physics. For example Ibn Sina made a deep study of phenomena such as force, motion, light, heat, vacuum, etc. Significant progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics. Useful work was done in the field of mechanics of the wheel shaft, lever, pulley, inclined plane, windmill, water wheel, gear, etc. The physicist and astronomer at Khazini-wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, called Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (the Book of balance of wisdom) which is the most notable medieval work on these issues. There is a theory of the strength of the attraction of the earth (gravity), whereby universal force is directed toward the center of the universe, which at that time was supposed to be the center of the earth. Includes tables of specific gravity of many liquid and solids (based on the work of al-Biruni), and a history of the subject, the severity of air comments about the capillary, using hydrometer to measure densities and appreciation of the temperature of the liquid, the theory of the lever, the application of balance leveling and measurement. The analysis and excerpts from this book have been published in Arabic and English. (1)
In another book on the balance Khazini stresses the need to eliminate, as far as possible, influences of temperature variation during the weighing. When al-Khazini other studies are considered, seems to be a precursor to Galileo.
Al-Khazini full name was Abd al-Rahman al-Mansur al Abu'l Fath '-Khazini (or Khazin-). He lived about 1115 to 1121. It was a Greek (Rumi) of slaves. His master 'Ali Al-Al-Khazin Marwazi managed to that good scientific and philosophical education Marwa. Al-Khäzin Compiled astronomical tables called Zij al-al-al-Sinjari Mu'tabar (The estimate Sinjaric pictures) who were appointed after Sinjar Ibn Ibn Alpe Malikshah Arsalan, governor and later Sultan of Khorasan (1097-98 to 1157-58). They give the position of the stars for the year 1115-1116.
Before al-Khazini, Omar al-Khayyam was the greatest work in balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi, contributed to the theory of equilibrium. Banu Musa (The children of Musa), which flourished during the reign of Caliph al-Mamun, wrote many works mechanically. An important work on the balance Farastün called 'o' Qarastun attributed to them. Al-Razi (d. 923-24) in the investigation of specific gravity by using a hydrostatic balance. This balance was called al-Mizan al-Tabi'i (Physical balance). (2)
Ali Ibn Muhammad 'Ibn al-Rustam Khurasani was a famous manufacturer of clocks and, therefore, was called al-Sa'ati (manufacturer watches). Between 1146 and 1169, built a clock placed in the Bab Jairün. (Called "Bab al-Sa'ah, the door of the clock). Al-Sa'äti was to under his watch until his death in 1184-85. (3)
Another 13th century Muslim mechanic was Isma'il Ibn Abul-Razzaza Isa (the son of rice merchant) Badi'al-Zaman al-Jazari. He was sponsored 577-578 to 601-602 AH 1181-1182 to 1205-1206 BC, by the rulers of Urtuqid Diyar Bakr, a district of al-Jazeera. He wrote a treatise on knowledge of mechanical devices called geometric fi al-Kitab al-Handsiyyah Hiyala Ma'rifat, which was dedicated to the Urtuqid Nasir al-Din Mahmud (reigned from 1200 to 1222). These are mainly hydraulic apparatus (elepsydras, fonts, etc..) This important work is interesting from a technical point of view, and represents the best Arabic work in applied mechanics. It is divided into six parts. The first part deals with the various types of elepsydras indicating either temporary or equal time is the most important. Muslims divided twenty-four hours on the same. But they adopted another type of division. They divided the day and night into twelve hours varies depending on the season. This type of hours were also used by Christians, for example in Europe, Italy, until the mid 18th century.
The book was translated into German, and comments also written on it. (4)
son Ridwan Al-Sä'ãti repair and improvement of the clock, and also wrote a book to describe its construction and use. This book is an important source of study of the first watches Muslim. Ridwan was a mechanic, doctor and poet, and had knowledge of literature and music. He played the flute. Originally belonged to Khorasan. He was appointed vizier by Prince al-Faiz Ayyubi and his brother Ibrahim al-Mu'azzam ISA. Ridwan also wrote a treaty of Ibn Sina in addition to grapes, and commentary on his Qanun (Canon). (5)
Qaisar Ibn Abu-l-Qasim, an Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 BC) made a celestial globe. Probably made improvements in the water-wheels and water mills. These rates improved water wheels are still on the Orontes, and are among the glories Hama. These wells were constructed (Naura) for Muzzaffar al-Taqi al-Din al-Mahmud, the ruler of Hama 1229-1244 AC (6)
The philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi refuted the existence a vacuum. He wrote a remarkable essay on the elasticity of the air. It is an original piece of research. (7)
Muslim scientists are interested in determining the specific gravity of various substances. Sanad Ibn Ali ', a ninth-century scientific research in specific gravity. Al-Biruni determined the specific gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sina and al-Razi also research on this topic.
Ibn Yunus (d. 1009 AC) applied to the pendulum for the measurement of time. Al-Biruni invented a time machine based on the Roman calendar. The constructed for use in the mosque of Ghazni. However, the imam of the mosque refused saying it was based on a work non-Muslims. In the Al-Biruni was very upset. He said the determination of time is a purely secular. It is therefore of little value if a calendar is based on a non-Muslim or a Muslim. Convenience only be taken into account.
Al-Biruni referred to a certain type of wells are obtained by drilling into the earth at that level of water that is subjected to hydrostatic pressure in that, if the water pressure is pumped up as in the natural springs. He correctly explains the action of such wells by the principle of communicating vessels. (8)
Muslims developed the techniques of bathing. They built a hot bath, steam called hammam (Hamm the Arabic root which means heat). When the Crusaders arrived in Eastern Europe and experience the comforts of the baths, they introduced them in their own countries.
Muslims were the first to implement the direct ownership of the magnetic needle to the determination of the direction of travel when traveling by sea. The Chinese were the first to discover this property. Maritime trade between Muslims gave great importance to the southern part of the needle than the north as in those days. This was probably because in some places like Syria and Asia Minor around the southern tip pointed toward Mecca. Thus, this end of the needle gave the general direction of the Qiblah. In the West the compass was the first of all used by Italian sailors. Some Muslims have spoken the compass in his writings. For example, al-Bailak Qabajaqi in his book Kanz al-Ahjär described the use of a floating compass witnessed by him in l242-43. (9)
"Muslims also were the first to invent guns and cannons and use of explosive material in them. The purpose of this invention was to shoot bullets at enemy from a distance. China Sodium nitrate used alone. But the penetrating power of the explosives was discovered and made use of only Muslims. Historians usually write first of all weapons used in war Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims is revealed that weapons had been used long time. In one of these writings is a story that a ruler named Ya'qub siege in 602 AH (1205 AC) Mehdra an African city that was under the control of rebel chief and attacked the walls with the help of guns and machines. Of all the machines out a series of a shower of large stones and fireballs.
The statement Ibn Khaldun in his "History of the Berbers" also demonstrates the use of weapons in time of war. Write "Abu Yusuf, the Sultan of Morocco under siege in 672 AH (1273 BC) the city of Siyilmasa. He set up the tools to besiege the city front. These instruments consisted of Manjneeq, Hamdan and the Urawa the bits of iron were thrown. These bits are filled in the Hamdan case, and explosives kept behind them caught fire. Its effect was strange and results could be called an act of God. A day with the help of a stone thrown by Manjneeq, part of the wall fell, and from there the attack took place in the city. (10)
Muslims developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haitham (Latin Alhazen) made a notable contribution to this science. In fact it began with modern optics. Before Ibn al-Haitham was generally thought by the Greeks, Romans and Muslims scientists rays are emitted from the eyes to the objects seen. Plato had suggested that another group of rays emitted by the object seen. Alexandrians believed that vision is in the eye's lens. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni is also believed that the object beam passed sight. Aristotle's ideas were very close to the modern concept. The atoms present a theory atomical. Hunain Ibn Ishaq in his work entitled "Issues eye 'put forward a theory that was something like Plato's. In his view, the goal was the central organ of vision. Both the visual power that comes the brain and the image of the object that comes from outside is received by the lens. Al-Razi, also, in his monograph on the nature of vision showed that the eyes do not radiate light. (11)
Ibn al-Haitham changed the traditional view by presenting the theory that the objects are seen by rays passing them to the eye and not the reverse. Most of his successors did not agree with your point of view, but Al-Biruni and Ibn Sina independently and fully agree with him. Ibn al-Haitham solve a series of optical problems, on the basis of mathematical knowledge of his time.
Ibn al-Haitham treated as a potpourri of topics as the structure of eye, optical illusion, perspective, binocular vision, the vision of the contours, shadows and colors, the old and dioptric catoptrics to new situations, the camera obscura, the problem of Alhazen, mirages, comets, the Milky Way, rainbows, halos, etc.
Ibn al-Haitham research carried out catoptrics that contains the problem known problem of Alhazen. It is as follows: –
"From two points in the plane of a circle to draw lines that intersect at a point the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. "This leads to an equation of fourth grade. Ibn al-Haitham solved it by the aid intersection of a hyperbola a circle. He also solved the cubic equation the so-called al-Mahani's.
Ibn al-Haitham showed a marked improvement in experimental techniques. The fact that research on spherical and parabolic mirrors, spherical aberration Dioptric. He realized that the relationship between the angles of incidence and reflection is not constant. He described the magnifying power of a lens and studied atmospheric refraction. He said that the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19 ° below the horizon, and tried to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He gave a better description of the eye and vision. He tried to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in the size of the Sun and Moon near the horizon. He gave the first treatment mathematician of the camera obscura. "
So dealing with the problems that are now under at least seven subjects including anatomy, physiology, psychology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and meteorology.
The full name is Ibn al-Haitham Ali Abu al-Hasan Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra and was born in 354 AH (965 AC). He emigrated to Egypt, where he lived until his death. It was a noble person and a genius who had the knowledge of many sciences. He was the greatest mathematician of his era and one of the largest in the history of optics. He was well versed in medicine and Arabic language. When the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who was very fond of philosophy, he learned from Ibn al-Haitham, had a great desire to see him. Al-Hakim was informed Ibn al-Haitham had revealed that if he had been in Egypt, could have done something about the river Nile, so it would be beneficial in all cases, either the water level was high or low. According to Ibn al-Haitham, the river fell from the top extends to the territory of Egypt. Upon hearing this, the Al-Hakim became more fond of the meeting of Ibn al-Haitham. Al-Hakim sent a large amount of money for him, and convinced him to come to his court. Ibn al-Haitham left for Egypt. When he came near Cairo al-Hakim was to meet him. They met in a village near Bab al-Qāhirah (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim paid tribute to him, provided him with of all facilities, and asked him to fulfill his promise on the Nile A group of workers is provided to assist in the implementation of its plan. When Ibn al-Haitham made the survey of the site and arrived at a place called 'Janadil "(now called Shalal), located near Aswan on high ground, he realized the difficulties. Finding himself unable to fulfill his promise, became a great shame, as he feared that Al-Hakim and get rid of it served as a madman, and remained in the condition of madness until the death of al-Hakim. He came to his senses and settled in Qubbah near the door Jami'ah al-Azhar, and settled writing books. He died in 1038.
Ibn al-Haitham is the author of many works. He summarized the works of Aristotle, and wrote commentaries on them. Also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on mathematics and physics are 15 and in metaphysics and physics are 44 in number. His books include in plants and one of the properties of simple and compound drugs. (12)
His Kitab al-Manazir (the thesaurus optical), is one of the main classical that have influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. The American, Muslim and Jewish writers such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, Vitellius, Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Levi Ben Gerson bases its work on this great book.
Ibn Sina made a deep study of light. He noted that if the light is emitted by the expulsion of some types of particles by the light source, the speed of light must be finite. (13) Al-Biruni in mind that the speed of light is vastly greater than that of sound. (14)
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi wrote two books on optics. One of them is entitled Al-wa fi al-Mabahith In'ikãs Shu'a'at In'itafiha (Research on reflection and refraction of the rays), contains a proof of the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection.
The other is entitled "Kitab al-Tahrir Paws. In the preface, the author notes that one perceive objects because light rays emanating from them, but that happens all like rays emanating from our eyes. (15)
Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1311) who was one of the greatest scientists of all time presented their views on the optical astronomical works. In one of these works, entitled "al-fi Nihãyat Idrãk Dirãyat al-Aflak (better understanding of the knowledge of the areas) to discuss issues of optics geometric nature of vision and finally the rainbow. It was the first to give a satisfactory account of the rainbow. His explanation of the rainbow is based on his study on the passage of a beam of light through a transparent sphere (drop). He found that the rainbow is formed when the rays are refracted twice and reflected once (or tunic in the case of secondary rainbow) in the humid atmosphere. (16)
Another, important mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abu'l-Hasan al-Farsi. He wrote a book entitled 'al-Tanqih Manazir (optical correction), which is an elaborate and original commentary, the Kitab al-Haitham Ibn al-Manazir (Book optics). It covers not only physical and physiological optics, but also the weather, Outlook and many other topics. Comments are included on the series perspective, color effects, etc.
Kamal al-Din suggested the use of hyperboloidal lenses in order to avoid spherical aberration. He reviewed the refraction of light. According to George Sarton, this account involves the following facts: the speed of light is finite but very large and the speed of light in different media is inversely proportional to the optical density (not the same as the density of material). The second of these facts seems to be an outline of the wave theory of light as against corpuscular theory.
Kamal al-Din held a series of experiments with camera obscura and improve its use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. Showed that the images obtained on a screen in a darkened room through, light rays passing through a narrow hole, are independent of the shape of the ho1e, and that the lower hole sharper images. It was also found that images of many objects are formed separately on the screen, but the pictures and directions invested. With the help of the camera, observed eclipses and movements of clouds and birds. (17)
Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the lancer) Najm al-Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) wrote on military subjects. He lived in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of war (1) al-Kitab wa'l Furusiyah Munasab al-Harbiyah (Riding and stratagems of war), (2) al-Su'ul Nihayat wa'l 'Umniya Ta'allum fi al-al-A'mal Furusiyah.
The first treaty addresses issues military, such as the military operation, using spears, bows, siege engines, and the method of fighting at sea and the communication of fire etc. It contains various recipes pyrotechnic Hasan Al-nitrate considers the fundamental substance of pyrotechnics. He explained the methods of preparation and purification thereof by and potash through repeated crystallizations.
According to George Sarton, who is more important than it may seem, for the impurities of nitrate are hygroscopic, and thus tend to destroy its value. To find out the salt and its uses was one thing, to purify was different. (18)
Muslims improve the art of shipbuilding, taught Mediterranean sailors for the construction of lighter boats or ships (garaf), packing their boats with tar is still known in the languages Romance with the Arabic name of gatran (goudron FR, IT. caltrame)-to handle the sails and cables (Habl Ar.). (19)
REFERENCES: –
1. A1-Khazini, 'Abd al-Rahman, "Mizan al-Hikma, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 AH pp. 1-170.
2. Al-Qifti, 'Ali Ibn Yusuf, Tarikh al-Hukam, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271.
3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, vol. I, p. 632.
4. Ibid., P. 631.
5. Ibid., 632.
6. Ibid., Vol II, Part II, p. 623.
7. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 277.
8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707.
9. Ibid., Vol II, part I, p. 24.
10. Balgirami, 'Ali, Tamaddun-e-Arab (Urdu translation of a French play by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441.
11. Ibid., Vol I, p. 609.
12. Ibid., P. 721.
13 Ismael Basha al-Baghdadi, al-Arifin Hadiyyah, Istanbul, 1951, Vol II, p. 66.
14. Sarton, op., P. 707.
15. Ibid., P. 709-713.
16. Ibid. vol. II, part II, p. 1009.
17. Ibid., P. 1018.
18. Ibid., Vol III, Part I, p. 707. Al-Farsi, Kamal al-Din, al-Tãnqih Manazir, Decean Hyderabad, India.
19. Sarton, op. cit., vol. II, Part II, p. 1039.
20. Briffault, Dr. Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980, p. 205.
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